1759+(II)

Joseph Smith ENGL452 Professor Rosenthal 9 July 2015

__ Page Introduction __ This wiki page will explore three months (February, March, and April) of the year 1759 via a news publication from that time, known by its full title as //The London Chronicle: or, Universal Evening Post// (“London Chronicle”). The newspaper’s features and the content thereof will be examined in order to give an understanding of what happened during the time and what the newspaper presented. For the sake of brevity, the newspaper will be referred to simply as the //Chronicle//. Additionally, the theater season of this three-month period will be examined, as will a play that debuted in 1759, //High Life Below Stairs//; even though this particular play did not debut during the three-month period, it contains certain aspects that can be connected with some of the reporting featured in the //Chronicle//. As such, the newspaper’s content that more closely relates to theater and to the play will be given greater attention and detail. __ General Discussion of //The London Chronicle: or, Universal Evening Post// __ First published in London on New Year’s Day in 1757, the //Chronicle// “appeared three times a week on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday evenings” (“London Chronicle”). From its beginning, part of the //Chronicle//’s purpose was to give “an accurate Account of foreign Transactions and domestick [sic] incidents” (qtd. in “London Chronicle”). Indeed, an examination of any issue of the //Chronicle// between February and April of 1759 will confirm this as being accurate. The //Chronicle// does give reports of incidents happening outside Great Britain, as these can be on anything from “[t]he Pope. . . establish[ing] a council of trade” (//London Chronicle// 327.103) to a report on the king of Spain’s “distemper grow[ing] worse and worse” (//London Chronicle// 332.143). The //Chronicle// also contains a specified section for news relating to London. Examples of this feature can be seen with the newspaper’s reports on the King promoting military officers (//London Chronicle// 334.159) as well as an announcement of Prince Edward’s 21st birthday from the previous day (//London Chronicle// 350.288). Fig. 1. __The London Chronicle from September 11, 1759.__ News reports were not merely limited to London and the world apart from Great Britain. The //Chronicle// contains another section entitled “COUNTRY NEWS”; presumably, the purpose of this segment is to report on incidents that take place within the country, yet outside London. One example from the February 10 - February 13 issue shows that these reports can greatly vary in their content, ranging from a “common beggar” in Ipswich who was killed by a wagon “running over his head and body” (//London Chronicle// 332.148) to a harvested 29-pound turnip “near Tudenham in Norfolk” (//London Chronicle// 332.149). Some of the reports as found in the London section give announcements of births, marriages, and deaths of people originating from a wide range of social statuses. The issue from January 30 - February 1 makes mention of two separate marriages and two different births, as well as the deaths of a presumably wealthy man (with the title “Esq.”) who “died suddenly in his post-chaise” (//London Chronicle// 327.103), the “mistress of Sutton’s coffee-house” (//London Chronicle// 327.103), and an unnamed “servant maid at Peckham” (//London Chronicle// 327.103). One notable obituary featured in the April 12 - April 14 issue is that of composer George Frideric Handel (Hicks), who is listed briefly as “the great musician” (//London Chronicle// 358.352). The //Chronicle// gives accounts of the arrival and departures of vessels in a section entitled “SHIP NEWS” (//London Chronicle// 327.108), as well as details of the “Prices of Corn” found in different cities (//London Chronicle// 330.132). Seemingly elite advertisements can also be found in the //Chronicle//, promoting everything from “true EIDER DOWN Coverings for Beds” targeted specifically at “the NOBILITY, GENTRY, &c.” (//London Chronicle// 355.329) to “STOMACHIC LOZENGES, for Disorders of the Stomach and Bowels” (//London Chronicle// 351.299) to “A FAMOUS WASH for Gentlemen and Ladies, called PEARL WATER. . . just imported from Paris” (//London Chronicle// 358.353). Advertisements in the //Chronicle// were not limited to personal products. The newspaper also contains advertisements for individual books and other published pieces of writing. These can range from “AN ESSAY on BREWING” (//London Chronicle// 331.142) to a published sermon (//London Chronicle// 350.291). In the issue for April 17 - April 19, one advertisement announces that “[i]n a few days will be published” Adam Smith’s //Theory of Moral Sentiments// (//London Chronicle// 360.374), which was indeed released in 1759 (“Adam Smith” 283). Some issues of the //Chronicle// have sections that feature what appear to be poetry submissions. Examples of this are seen with a ten-line piece from the January 30 - February 1 issue under the heading of “TUNBRIDGE VERSES” known as “Mrs. Drawcansir’s Declaration,” which cynically opens, “Contemn’d by all, I all mankind despise” (//London Chronicle// 327.103) to a more lengthy six-stanza “Ode” by a William Langhorne entitled “The JOYS of HEAVEN,” which notes that it is “Occasioned by the Misfortunes of an excellent Poet” (//London Chronicle// 330.129). Other examples of articles that are not related to the news include pieces ranging from an essay on female beauty (//London Chronicle// 360.371-72) to a segment from a “Dr. Hill’s System of the Proliferation of Flowers from his Treatise on the Origins and Production of Proliferous Flowers” (//London Chronicle// 354.322-23). There are also opinion pieces written “to the printer,” such as one by a “TIM. MEANWELL” of Langford that expresses his views partly on “French commerce” (//London Chronicle// 327.104), as well as various reports originating from other publications, such as an essay by an author known only as “P.” taken from “the First Number” of a new newspaper from Dublin known as //The Shepherd// (//London Chronicle// 327.106-07) and an article “from the WESTMINSTER-JOURNAL” written by “Britannicus” who in part presses for a “disciplined” military force “as Elizabeth had” and states “that, without a good Militia, England in the event must be undone” (//London Chronicle// 363.392). There are issues of the //Chronicle// that contain several mentions of theater and aspects related to it. One example of this can be found in instances of theater advertisements. In the January 30 - February 1 issue, there are two plays advertised together in a section for news in London. They are listed as “The Tragedy of MEROPE, and the New Comedy of two Acts call’d the GUARDIAN” (//London Chronicle// 327.110). The announcement also notes that the plays are “advertised in the Paper for the Benefit of a Gentleman well known in the Literary World, who is in unhappy circumstances” (//London Chronicle// 327.110). Furthermore, the notice reads that the plays “will be performed at the Theatre in //Drury-Lane// on //Saturday// next” (//London Chronicle// 327.110). Indeed, the occurrence of these plays’ performance is confirmed in //The London Stage// as having taken place on Saturday, February 3, at Drury Lane (//London Stage// 709). Additionally, one of those plays, //The Guardian//, appears in a later issue of the //Chronicle// dated from February 10 - February 13, advertised as being available in print form on the front page (//London Chronicle// 332.143). Another issue of the //Chronicle//, dated from March 31 - April 3, advertised a production of //Romeo and Juliet// set for performance at Drury Lane on April 5, starring a “Mr. Garrick” as Romeo (//London Chronicle// 353.313) (no doubt referring to the actor David Garrick) (White 146-50), “[b]eing the First Time of his appearing in the Character this Season,” in addition to a “Farce” entitled “MISS in Her TEENS” (//London Chronicle// 353.313); //The London Stage// also confirms these performances as having taken place on the same date and at the same location (//London Stage// 719). The theater is not only advertised in the //Chronicle//, but is also written about and discussed in the paper. In the issue dated January 30 - February 1, a writer known only as “Apollo” submitted a poem “//[o]n Mr.// GARRICK’s //appearing in a New Farce on// Saturday //next, for the benefit of Mr.// SMART” (//London Chronicle// 327.109). The “Farce” that is mentioned here undoubtedly refers to //The Guardian//, as //The London Stage// refers to a production of that play on Saturday, February 3, starring an actor with the name Garrick and described in its notes as a “farce” (qtd. in //London Stage// 709). The theater was also discussed in the //Chronicle//, although not always in a positive fashion. An example of this can be seen in a letter published as a serial in five issues of the //Chronicle// (//London Chronicle// 331.138-39) (332.146-47) (334.161-62) (337.185-187) (346.258-59), which is labeled in the first installment as being “from M. Rousseau of Geneva to M. d’Alembert of Paris, concerning the Effects of Theatrical Entertainments on the Manners of Mankind. Translated from the French” (//London// //Chronicle// 331.138). The “M. Rousseau of Geneva” in question is undoubtedly the Swiss philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (“Rousseau, Jean-Jacques” 1325), and in 1758 he did write a letter to “//M. d’Alembert on the Theatre//” (Hall 116). Some of Rousseau’s sentiments on the issue of theater are as follows. In one //Chronicle// issue where he addresses the potential “effect the lives of the comedians might reasonably be expected to produce in such a city as Geneva” (//London Chronicle// 334.161), he appears to have a very low view of comedians in theater, as he notes in part, “What sort of spirit is it then that a comedian imbibes from his condition? A mean spirit, a spirit of falsehood, pride, and low ridicule, which qualifies him for acting every sort of character, that of man, which he lays aside” (//London Chronicle// 334.162). He also partly states that the comedian “mak[es] it his whole business to cultivate the art of deception, and with practicing it in habits, which though innocent perhaps on the stage, must every where else be subservient to vice” (//London Chronicle// 334.162). Apparently, Rousseau had problems with comedians because “a player is a person who delivers himself upon the stage in sentiments not his own; who says only what he is made to say: what can be more odious, more shocking, or more base, than to see an honest comedian acting the part of a villain, and exerting his whole abilities to establish criminal maxims, which he sincerely detests in his own heart?” (//London// //Chronicle// 334.162). Rousseau is not the only source of negative evaluation of the theater that is featured in the //Chronicle//. One issue dated April 26 - April 28 presents what appear to be lengthy segments from a recent written work entitled “//An Enquiry into the present State of Polite Literature in Europe//” (//London Chronicle// 364.401). The author’s name is not given, although further research of the title reveals the anonymous author to be the Irish-born poet and playwright Oliver Goldsmith (although one source gives the title of “//Polite Learning//,” rather than “//Polite Literature//”) (“Goldsmith, Oliver 714-16). //An Enquiry// was Goldsmith’s “first book” and is also considered to be a “long essay” (“Goldsmith, Oliver” 715), so what is featured in the April 26 - April 28 issue of the //Chronicle// is apparently a series of selected portions from his work (//London Chronicle// 364.401-03). One section, which notes a passage deriving from “a chapter on the English stage” (//London Chronicle// 364.402), reveals Goldsmith’s views on the then current state of theater. Regarding “love scenes” in plays, he notes that when merely reading them, they “are frigid, tawdry, and disgusting” (//London Chronicle// 364.402), and when “we are spectators, all the persuasives to vice receive an additional lustre” (//London Chronicle// 364.402), as “[t]he love scene is aggravated, the obscenity heightened, the best actors figure in the most debauched characters. . .” (//London Chronicle// 364.402). Additionally, Goldsmith states that “[t]he principal performers find their interest in chusing [sic] such parts as tend to promote, not the benefit of society, but their own reputation, and in using arts which inspire emotions very different from those of morality” (//London Chronicle// 364.403). Fig. 2. __Portrait of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778).__ As it may be implied with some of the previous examples, much of what can be viewed in the //Chronicle//’s global reports relates to war, as one report first made on January 26 from Hanover, yet reported in the issue for February 10 - February 13, gives brief detail of “[t]welve of our regiments of horse and foot” marching to an unknown destination (//London Chronicle// 332.143). Another report featured in the London section mentions that a “General Bland’s regiment of dragoons is to be sent to join the Allied army in Germany” (//London Chronicle// 334.159). Furthermore, the February 10 - February 13 issue gives a report dating from January 16 in Dresden that “a body of about 1200 Austrian troops have lately entered the territories of Saxe-Gotha, and seem to be advancing towards the frontiers of this Electorate; but the Prussians are very easy with respect to the march of that detachment, having more troops in this district than will be necessary to defeat any designs of their enemies” (//London Chronicle// 334.159). It may be safe to assume that these various military reports are related to the then ongoing Seven Years’ War, which “[g]enerally” involved “France, Austria, Saxony, Sweden, and Russia” pitted “against Prussia, Hanover, and Great Britain” (“Seven Years’ War”). However, the war was not merely limited to military action in Europe as described in these reports. Indeed, the war was also marked by “overseas colonial struggles between Great Britain and France” (“Seven Years’ War”). Some of these “struggles” seem to have been made over territory in the West Indies, which included Guadeloupe in 1759 (Black) (Charters 61). The //Chronicle// makes mention of the military conflict in Guadeloupe at least twice. In a report originally from “//The// LONDON GAZETTE //Extraordinary//,” the March 6 - March 8 issue describes how on January 22 “his Majesty’s fleet appeared off the island of Guadalupe [sic],” and that on January 23 the fleet bombarded “the town of Basseterre,” then “land[ed]. . . the next day” (//London Chronicle// 342.223). In addition to the account, the //Chronicle// features a “//List of the Ships which attacked the Island of// Guadalupe [sic] //the 23rd of// January, 1759,” as well as a record listing the names of the officers and the number of soldiers who were “killed and wounded” (//London Chronicle// 342.223). An additional skirmish in Guadeloupe was described in the March 13 - March 15 issue of the //Chronicle//, giving a partly grim account of it via a letter “//from a Sailor on Board his Majesty’s Ship Berwick at Guardaloupe// [sic]//,// //to his brother, a Ropemaker, dated Jan.// 28, 1759 (//London Chronicle// 345.247). The sailor noted that upon arriving at Guadeloupe that day, they fought against the French forces there, and in the end, he reported, they “got possession of their grand fort, and the town is burnt to ashes. The dogs scalped in prison near 200 of our people, whom they had taken prisoners in our merchant ships, and afterwards burnt them all” (//London Chronicle// 345.247). The “conquest of Guadaloupe [sic]” was later referred to in the “Postscript” section of a //Chronicle// issue dated April 5 - April 7, in which a writer known as “Guadaloupo Brittannus” gave his opinion “//To the Publisher of the// LONDON Chronicle” that this “conquest. . . will be one of the greatest acquisitions made to the British Empire since the taking of Jamaica; and appears to be the happy consequence of our present wise Administration in prosecuting this war chiefly at Sea” (//London Chronicle// 355.333). Specifically, the author argues in favor of “grant[ing] patents for the lands to the Settlers on certain conditions,” namely in part, “[t]hat the Gentlemen Settlers of that Island should ship all their Sugars in British vessels directly to Holland, Sweden, Hambro’, or any other Foreign port, without expence or loss of time to call in at Great Britain. This scheme would be attended with many advantages to the Mother Country,” one of which being “[i]t will enable the Gentlemen of Guadaloupe [sic] to ship their sugar early to foreign markets; which will not only be a great advantage to them, but greatly injurious to our rivals the French. . .” (//London Chronicle// 355.333) References to sugar in the West Indies were made previously in the February 17 - 20 issue of the //Chronicle//, where an opinion piece “//To the Printer of the// LONDON CHRONICLE” written by an individual known as “A. A.” makes a partial reference to “a pamphlet entitled, //A State of the British Sugar Colonies//,” and quoted the author of which as “having declared himself, ‘utterly at a loss to find out any reason why the Owners of Land in the British Sugar Colonies should be permitted to make greater profits by their estates, than the Landholders of England can possibly gain by the like quantities of land. .’” (//London// //Chronicle// 335.173). Beyond the context of military action, the West Indies and related aspects are often referenced in the //Chronicle//. The issue from March 6 - March 8 reports in its section on London news the death of “a Jamaica Merchant” (//London Chronicle// 342.229). In addition, the April 26 - April 28 issue reports the death of a man in Bath who “possessed of a large plantation in Barbadoes [sic]” (//London Chronicle// 364.399). Guadeloupe is mentioned further in a lengthy article spanning over a page entitled “//A Description and Natural History of the Island of// GUARDALOUPE [sic]” featured in the March 8 - March 10 issue (//London Chronicle// 343.235-36). Fig. 3. __Guadeloupe in 1759.__ There is another subject mentioned in the //Chronicle// that is also a prevalent theme found in Townley’s //High Life Below Stairs//: servants. The section highlighting London news in the April 12 - April 14 issue reports that “a servant girl, living at the Boatswain and Call at Ratcliff-highway, was found drowned in a well in the yard” (//London Chronicle// 358.351). Also from the London news section, the issue dating from January 30 - February 1 gives the following account: “A gentleman of distinction has eloped with his mother’s chambermaid; and yesterday several persons were in search of him” (//London Chronicle// 327.109). The //Chronicle// also reports on the criminal activity of servants, as exemplified in the following dispatch from the February 8 – February 10 issue: “By letters from Smyrna of the first of December, we hear, that one Mr. Dobbs, an English merchant residing there, who had two Sclavonian servants in his house, and having lost a silver salver, and threatened the servants with severe punishment if they did not find it again, was strangled in bed by the Sclavonians, who afterwards made their escape” (//London Chronicle// 331.140). Additionally, a report in the “COUNTRY NEWS” section from the February 13 - February 15 issue states the following: “We hear from Morpeth, that this week a young man was committed to that gaol, on suspicion of poisoning his master at Harnam” (//London Chronicle// 333.155). However, some of the accounts given of servants in the news shows some as being exemplary in their character and profession, as is implied in the same issue that gives the following report: “On Monday a fire happened at Lady Lucy Clinton’s, sister to the Earl of Lincoln, in Charles-street, Berkeley-square, in her Ladyship’s room; by which her Ladyship was much burnt, as were some of the servants in getting her out of the room” (//London Chronicle// 333.155). Additionally, the February 20 - 22 issue features an article first printed in //The Shepherd// that describes the past servant duties of a man known as “John Trueman” (//London Chronicle// 336.176). In what appears to have originally been a letter addressed to a Nicholas Crooke, Esq., it opens with these words: “I am one of those mortals, who are often spoken of, but almost always neglected. As my poverty prevents my complaining to those, who ought to redress me, I am compelled to lay my grief before you, the Shepherd of the poor” (//London Chronicle// 336.176). Trueman gives a testimony of his past occupation as a servant to a man known as “Sir Thomas,” whom Trueman had served since he was sixteen. Trueman recounted incidents that occurred during his years of service to Sir Thomas. It was from “sav[ing] [him] when his horse fell on him in a ditch” that “procured [Trueman] the honour of being made one of his domestics at four pounds a year” (//London Chronicle// 336.176). Later on, “Sir Thomas had singled [Trueman] out as a native of some docility (his own words) to travel with him into foreign parts” (//London Chronicle// 336.176). Recounting other incidences of faithfully serving his master, including “[bringing] him through a violent fever,” Trueman remarks in part, “I can truly say, I was a faithful servant; I had lost very little of my native innocence; I was never absent or drunk; and never did a thing to bring a blush in my face. I saved my little money as much as I could. . .” (//London Chronicle// 336.176). Presently at sixty-eight years old, Trueman had to be let go upon his master’s death, to which he responded in sadness when leaving his master’s house (//London Chronicle// 336.176). Although taken in by a friend after this incident, Trueman expresses his “nightly and daily fears,” being “that my friend Simon Long will die before me; for my poor savings could not protect me from burthening the parish” (//London Chronicle// 336.176). Trueman’s letter ends as follows: “You may say, Why does this old fellow trouble me? How can I serve him? Indeed, Sir, I fear much you cannot help me; but, perhaps, my story, with some of your observations, might assist some poor miserable souls; and touch the hearts of their masters. Good God! are servants to be worse treated than brutes are — ” (//London Chronicle// 336.176). __ Summary of the Theater Season of February - April 1759 __ The theater season in London spanning from the months of February to April in 1759 appears to have been both ongoing and diverse. Based on information derived from //The// //London Stage 1660-1800//, one could have the privilege of attending a theatrical performance every day of the week except Sunday, as it appears that no Sundays are listed (//London Stage//). Additionally, sometimes the same theater would perform an additional production on the same day. For one example out of many, on February 1, a production of //Henry V// (known in the entry as “//King Henry V//”)took place at the Theatre Royal in Covent Garden, in addition to another performance labeled simply as //Harlequin Soldier//, the name of which was placed at the bottom of the //London Stage// entry with no cast list (//London Stage// 709). A theater might also present a production on a fairly frequent basis; also on February 1, the Theatre Royal in Drury Lane staged a performance of a play entitled //The Ambitious Step-Mother// (also written variously as “//Stepmother//”) (//London Stage// 708-11). Looking further into the month, the play was performed multiple times, specifically on the 5th (//London Stage// 709), the 8th (//London Stage// 710), the 9th (//London Stage// 710), the 10th (//London Stage// 710), the 19th (//London Stage// 711), and again on April 3 (//London Stage// 719). The plays of William Shakespeare appear frequently in the entries. Examples of these include the aforementioned production of //Henry V// (Andrews 267), as well as performances of //Coriolanus// (//London Stage// 709) (Andrews 268), //As You Like It// (//London Stage// 710) (Andrews 268), //Hamlet// (//London Stage// 713) (Andrews 268), //The Tempest// (//London Stage// 714) (Andrews 268), //Macbeth// (//London Stage// 714) (Andrews 268), //Much Ado About Nothing// (//London Stage// 717) (Andrews 267), and //Romeo and Juliet// (//London Stage// 719) (Andrews 267). Notable plays of the Restoration period that were performed during this season of three months include William Congreve’s “masterpiece” //The Way of the World// (“Congreve, William” 419-421) as performed at the Theatre Royal in Covent Garden on February 8 (//London Stage// 710) and 14 (//London Stage// 711), and at the Theatre Royal in Drury Lane on April 24 (//London Stage// 722); and Aphra Behn’s “successful” //The Rover// (“Aphra Behn” 33-34) as performed at the Theatre Royal in Covent Garden on April 24 (//London Stage// 723). Other noteworthy 18th century plays include John Gay’s “greatest popular and critical success” //The Beggar’s Opera// (“Gay, John” 671) as performed at the Theatre Royal in Covent Garden on February 5 (//London Stage// 710), 9 (//London Stage// 710), and March 20 (//London Stage// 716); Richard Steele’s “successful” //The Conscious Lovers// (“Sir Richard Steele” 408) as performed at the Theatre Royal in Covent Garden on February 12 (//London Stage// 710), and at the Theatre Royal in Drury Lane on March 29 (//London Stage// 718). Along with plays, operas are also listed, such as //La Serva Padrona// (//London Stage// 718) (“Giovanni Battista Pergolesi” 219), as performed on March 29 (//London Stage// 718), April 2 (//London Stage// 719), and April 5 (//London Stage// 720) at “The New or Little Theatre in the Haymarket” (//London Stage// ix), and on April 16 (//London Stage// 720) and 17 (//London Stage// 721) at “Mary-le-Bone Gardens” (//London Stage// ix). Additionally, some of the oratorios by the composer George Frideric Handel appear in the entries, such as //Solomon// on March 2 (//London Stage// 713) (Hicks), //Susanna// on March 9 (//London Stage// 714) (Hicks), //Samson// on March 14 (//London Stage// 715) (Hicks) and 21 (//London Stage// 716), and //The Messiah// on March 30 (//London Stage// 718) (Hicks), April 4 (//London Stage// 719), and April 6 (//London Stage// 720). During the February to April theater season, one play made its debut. This was //The Orphan of China// by Arthur Murphy (Bode 265), which first debuted on April 21 at the Theatre Royal in Drury Lane (//London Stage// 722) (Bode 265). Noted in the entry as being a “Tragedy” (//London Stage// 722), it was translated from “a Chinese work and a French play by Voltaire based on the same Chinese source, both adapted rather than translated into Murphy’s play” (Bode 270). Within the three-month period, //The Orphan of China// was also performed on April 23 (//London Stage// 722), 25 (//London Stage// 723), and 28 (//London Stage// 723). However, when viewed in the course of the entire year, rather than the three-month period, //The Orphan of China// was not the only theatrical production to make its debut in 1759. Another play that debuted in 1759 was //High Life Below Stairs// by James Townley (//London Stage// 752-53) (“Townley, James (1714-78)” 384). Described as “a farce of two acts” (Townley 1), the play’s first production took place at the Theatre Royal in Drury Lane on October 31 of that year, as is confirmed in //The London Stage// (//London Stage// 752-53) and in //The New International Encyclopedia// (“Townley, James (1714-78)” 384). Specifically, the following synopsis is derived from the “Third Edition” of the play, also published in 1759 (Townley 1). Some of its elements loosely tie with aspects of //The London Chronicle//’s features, and its synopsis will be described as follows. __ Summary of //High Life Below Stairs// __ ACT I  Scene ii: The story begins in London at the house of Charles Freeman (3, 4), who is conversing with his friend Peregrine Lovel (3, 6). Lovel is described in the dramatis personæ as “a young West-Indian of fortune” (2). The men’s conversation is centered on Lovel’s servants, as it is implied at the beginning of the play that Freeman has already been trying to convince Lovel that his servants have been cheating on him (1). Lovel is open to the possibility of this being true, yet he also believes that only one of his servants, Tom, would act in such a way (3-4). In contrast, Freeman says that Tom is the only good servant Lovel has (4). Lovel has been deriving a plan to confirm his servants’ deceitful attitudes: he would disguise himself as “a gawky Country Boy” (6), have Freeman present him as a new servant (7), and spy on his servants to search out for any devious behavior (5, 11). Part of Lovel’s plan has already been carried out, as he had announced to his servants that he was going to his house in Devonshire (6). Lovel’s final determination to carry out his plan is also based on information he received from an anonymous letter that also confirms his servants’ deceit (5-6). To be sure that what Freeman says is true, Lovel decides to ask Freeman’s servant Robert if he knows anything about it (it is mentioned that Robert was at one time acquainted with Lovel’s servants, but Freeman prevented him from being near them due to their reckless behavior) (5). When Robert enters, Freeman and Lovel ask him how Lovel’s servants behave (7-8). Robert, who is described as being “honest” (5), is so well-mannered to the point that he is reluctant to speak negatively about “a Brother Servant” (8). However, Freeman recognizes the handwriting of the letter as that of Robert’s, which Robert humbly admits to writing it (9-10). Robert then tells the Freeman and Lovel about not only what Lovel’s servants do, but what they think of their master (he even mentions one of Lovel’s servants, Philip, as being an especially “bad Man,” which Lovel had denied earlier) (4, 10). Finally convinced, Lovel prepares to carry out his plan, and states that once he witnesses his servants’ bad behavior, he will reveal himself to them (11). Scene ii: The scene shifts to a London park, where a servant to an unnamed duke enters and prides himself at being a servant to the “Nobility,” declaring his superiority to “ordinary Servants” (11). A servant to one Sir Harry enters (11). The two servants act like nobility, referring to each other by their masters’ names (as well as “my lord” and “your grace” and “Baronet,” etc.) (12). During their conversation, Sir Harry and the Duke discuss invitations they received to attend a social gathering hosted by two of Lovel’s servants, Philip and Kitty, at Lovel’s house (13). The Duke mentions that “Lady Bab” and “Lady Charlotte” will also attend the dinner (these woman are also servants to nobility) (14, 15). When the menservants briefly “retire,” the maids to Lady Bab and Lady Charlotte enter (they too refer to each other by their mistresses’ names) (15). Part of their conversation involves Lady Bab asking Lady Charlotte about her relationship with Sir Harry (16). The women exit and the men “come forward,” continuing their discussion of the party (16-17). For a moment, the Duke exits, and Sir Harry reveals the Duke’s unsophisticated country background just before the Duke reappears (17). After some further brief discussion of the forthcoming event, the Duke exits once again and it is at that moment when Philip enters (17-18). Philip expresses his hopes that Sir Harry will attend, and gives details of serving wine reserved for special occasions (18-19). Sir Harry exits when Philip notes that Freeman is walking nearby (19). Freeman approaches Philip and (going along with Lovel’s plan) informs him that one his tenant’s sons is looking for work as a servant (19-20). Falling for the plan, Philip readily agrees to take responsibility in training the new servant (20-21). Once Freeman leaves, Philip reviles him, as he knows his relationship with Lovel (21). Scene iii: The scene shifts to “the Servant’s Hall in Lovel’s House,” where two of the servants, Kingston and the Coachman, lay “drunk and sleepy (22). During this time, there is the sound of a door knocking (22). When the Cook commands them to answer it, they refuse in their drunken stupor, and the three consequently argue (22-23). Philip, who answered it, enters with Lovel disguised as the simple country lad known as “Jemmy” (11, 23). During this time, “Jemmy” is introduced to the servants (he wakes up Kingston and the Coachman through a slap in the face and a yank on the nose, respectively) (23-27). Immediately, the servants reveal their behavior to Lovel: they revile Freeman, claiming him to be “stingy” (25), and they use Lovel’s food sources for themselves while not in the least having remorse for him having to pay for it (25). Kitty enters (26), and Philip mentions his intentions to marry her and give her a gift of five hundred pounds he has presumably confiscated from his master, as they have plans to begin a new life with the money and dream of opening a “Chocolate-house” (27). Kitty also reveals her pretentious behavior in speaking poor French, and Philip forbids her from acting pretentious in front of the Duke when it comes time for the party (27). Kitty and Philip then begin teaching “Jemmy” the “Rules” of being a servant, with Kitty reading them from a book on the subject (28-30). However, much of the advice they give him is devious in nature, which includes lying, stealing, and indolence (29-30). After this brief review, they begin to prepare for the evening’s gathering (30). ACT II  Scene i:   The scene continues in the “Servants Hall” with Philip, Kitty, and Lovel as “Jemmy” present (31). Already, Lovel’s servants have already made their preparations for the supper (31). Philip and Kitty express their resentment for Tom, whom they despise for “prefer[ing] his Master’s Interest to his own” (31). When Tom enters, Philip taunts him and asks him why he will not join the other servants in the supper (31). Tom states that he has no respect for the other servants and their schemes (32). He accuses them of taking payment from “every Tradesman belonging to the House” (33). He even hits “Jemmy” for his foolishness in taking part the servants’ ploys (33). Tom declares his loyalty for Lovel and further rebukes Philip and Kitty for treating such a fair and generous master as Lovel with deceit and contempt, as when they give away Lovel’s garments, presumably for money (33). All the while, the disguised Lovel observes and now understands that Tom is not the “rogue” he thought him to be (33). Philip taunts Tom into telling on them (33). Tom then exits saying that he will not tattle but instead hopes that Lovel himself will find out about their malicious behavior (34). The Duke’s servant then enters, pretentiously greeting Kitty in French (34). Philip then exits with Lovel to go to the wine cellar (34-35). The Duke now with Kitty, he then criticizes the art in Lovel’s house and they discuss theater (35-36). The Duke even attempts to steal a kiss from Kitty (36). At that moment, Sir Harry’s servant arrives on the scene (36). He and the Duke soon fight over who gets to kiss Kitty, and they begin to insult one another over their titles (36-37). After this Lady Bab’s maid enters, who explains her lateness is on account of being enraptured with reading a book, and notes a favorite writer to be “Shikspur” (37-38). Finally, Lady Charlotte’s maid enters, who remarks that she has been feeling ill and openly derides Sir Harry’s affections for her, favoring instead a “Marquis” (38-39). Philip and Lovel then enter carrying bottles of wine, with Lovel pretending to be drunk (39). Kitty then recommends the supposedly drunk “Jemmy” to get some rest, and with that Lovel exits (40). The remainder of Lovel’s servants arrive on the scene, and their party begins with some music and dancing provided by a visiting fiddler (40-41). Afterwards they “sit down” to their supper, where Philip proposes a toast for “the Amendment [sic] of our Masters and Mistresses” (41-42). All of the servants then ask Kitty to sing a song, the lyrics of which are rife with disrespect toward those they serve and state that masters are no better than their servants are (43-44). Afterwards, the Duke remarks of how much of “a damn’d vile composition” the song is (44). Sir Harry then takes this as an opportunity to pick a fight with the Duke to the point that they challenge one another to a duel (45). Before this can get underway and while Philip attempts to pacify them, a sudden sound of knocking interrupts the scene (45). Philip sends Kingston upstairs to spy out who is knocking (45). Kingston returns to report that Lovel and Freeman are at the door and that “Tom has just let them in” (46). Taken by surprise, Lovel’s servants frantically attempt to clean up all of the evidence of their festivities, while the servants of the nobility begin to panic, “run[ning] about in Confusion” (46). Lovel’s voice is heard from upstairs, calling for Philip (46). In a state of panic, Philip and Kitty hide the four guests in the kitchen pantry (46-47). By that time, Lovel (who is pretending to be drunk) and Freeman enter carrying pistols, with Philip and Kitty sitting down, pretending as if nothing had happened (47). In his supposed drunkenness, Lovel uses some revealing language about his being in the kitchen, as he remarks, “I have some Accounts that I must settle,” that he will “settle them in a twinkling,” and that he will “settle ‘em all here” (47-48). Philip and Kitty can say nothing to persuade Lovel not to stay in the kitchen, as adding to the tension Lovel remarks that he wants something to drink and eat from the pantry (48-49). From the pantry door, Sir Harry mistakenly whispers to Kitty, which Lovel hears and Kitty claims to be nothing (49). While Lovel and Freeman partake of some wine, a sneeze is heard from the pantry, which both Lovel and Freeman hear (49-50). With pistol in hand, Lovel believes that it is a sign that there are “Thieves” present, and will eradicate them (50). Kitty claims that the sneeze was only from a cat, but this does nothing to stop Lovel from walking over to the door of the pantry (50-51). Once Lovel “Cocks the Pistol” and is ready to shoot at the door, a scream emits from the pantry, thereby revealing the Duke’s, Sir Harry’s, Lady Bab’s, and Lady Charlotte’s servants’ hiding place (51). When Lovel asks of the intruders’ identities, Philip immediately makes excuses about the four servants being “Friends,” claiming, “[T]hey have been entertained at our own Expence,” which Kitty agrees to (51). When Lovel asks why they would offer special wine (“imperial Tokay”) to their guests, he then goes into his unrefined impersonation of Jemmy, to which Philip and Kitty respond in shock realizing that Lovel had been with them all along (51). At this time, Lovel also reveals that he is not drunk (52). The Duke’s servant begins to explain his presence by referring to the fact that he serves a Duke (52). Lovel, however, does not want to hear any explanation, and commands the Duke’s servant to leave and not return under threat of “break[ing] every Bone in your Grace’s Skin” (52). From this, the Duke’s servant, along with Sir Harry’s servant and the maids of Lady Bab and Lady Charlotte, exit, still speaking pretentiously and impudently (52). Philip and Kitty then plead that Lovel “will not take away [their] Bread” (52), to which Lovel replies in scoffing their plans to run away with the five hundred pounds to open a “Chocolate House” (Townley 53). Lovel then says that Kitty may stay at the house until morning, but Philip must leave immediately, on account of his “Villainy” and “Hypocrisy” (53). Tom then enters, whom Lovel commends for his honesty, asks him to “take charge of the Cellar and Plate,” to which Tom is reluctant to do so, as not wanting to rise on the “Ruin of a Fellow-servant,” and is asked to show Philip out of the house (53). When Tom exits with Philip and Kitty (53), Lovel thanks Freeman for his help in the plan to uncover the deceit of his servants, to which Freeman replies that while Lovel “punish’d the bad, it was but Justice to reward the good” (54). Both men then comment on the honesty of their loyal servants (54). The play concludes with Lovel and Freeman commenting on servants who pretend to act like their masters, which Lovel notes that when “Persons of Rank” pretend to embody “everything that is ridiculous, it will be in the Power of any low Creature to follow their Example” (Townley 54). __ Concluding Thoughts __ While somewhat fragmented, there are some speculative connections that can be made between some of the content featured in the //Chronicle//, //The London Stage//, and //High Life Below Stairs//, regarding the topics of the theater, the West Indies, and servants. What can be said about theater is based on both the entries from //The London Stage// and some of the editions of the //Chronicle// that have been examined. It appears that theater was still a popular venue for entertainment, with a variety of theatrical genres made available to the theater-goers of London, as exemplified by the theater advertisements. While popular, the theater may not have been held in as high a regard as one would think, as seen in the less than complimentary views from the likes of authors such as Rousseau and Goldsmith (//London Chronicle// 331.138-39) (332.146-47) (334.161-62) (337.185-187) (346.258-59) (//London Chronicle// 364.401-03). The closest example of theater being referenced in //High Life Below Stairs// comes from the character of the Duke’s servant, who, during a conversation with Kitty in Act II, responds to her question, “Your Grace loves a play?” with, “No – It is a dull old-fashioned Entertainment – I hate it. – ” (Townley 35-36). Although his reasons for not enjoying the theater are not the same as the examples given in the //Chronicle//, it could be said that he does demonstrate a disregard for it that can also be seen, though differently, in the critical writings of Rousseau and Goldsmith. What can be evaluated regarding the topic of the West Indies in the //Chronicle// and from //High Life Below Stairs// is that these island territories must have been an important feature of discussion, as seen in the opinion piece from “Guadaloupo Brittannus” on the importance of Great Britain importing sugar from Guadeloupe (//London Chronicle// 355.333), as well as the obituaries of landowners in Jamaica and Barbados (//London Chronicle// 342.229) (//London Chronicle// 364.399), all of which imply an importance in economic prosperity. These pieces of writing were produced during the Seven Years’ War and illustrate that a component of the war was “centered on the maritime and colonial conflict between Britain and. . . France” and was important for Britain, as it showed “a reflection of the strength of the British navy – itself the product of the wealth of Britain’s expanding colonial economy and the strength of British public finances” (Black). This also would have been an important facet in Britain establishing its “global empire” (Charters 9, 11), as much in the same way as another play, //The Conscious Lovers//, displays “Britain’s global economy in the eighteenth century,” as mentioned in a class podcast (Rosenthal). With regard to how the West Indies are mentioned in //High Life Below Stairs//, Lovel is “a young West-Indian of Fortune” (Townley 2), and is specifically from Jamaica (Townley 4). There is a moment in Act I, scene ii, where Lovel and Freeman seemingly tease each other good-naturedly about their respective environments, with Freeman commenting in part, “You Gentry of the Western Isles are high mettled ones, and love Pomp and Parade – ” (Townley 4), with Lovel partly replying, “I should be very sorry if we were as splenetic as you Northern Islanders, who are devoured with Melancholy and Fog” (Townley 4). It is here that a marked difference is shown between wealthy men in the West Indies and those in Great Britain. Lovel is a member of the “Gentry” and is known as a “Squire” (Townley 4). Freeman is said to have a “Tenant. . . in Essex” (Townley 20) which would relate to the role of a landed gentleman as “supporting all the people who made a living by renting out. . . land” (Rosenthal), although the true nature of this distinction is not confirmed, since Freeman uses his position as a part of the design to have a disguised Lovel become a servant (Townley 6-7, 20). This difference can be seen in the article that mentions men who own land in Britain and the West Indies (//London Chronicle// 335.173), and also parallels what was mentioned in the same class podcast on the division between the “emerging merchant class” and the “gentry class” (while they “are not completely distinct”) (Rosenthal). In addition to such themes as the theater and the West Indies, as seen in the //Chronicle// and //High Life Below Stairs//, is the matter regarding servants and their behavior. In the articles and reports from the //Chronicle//, the personalities of servants range from the noble to the sinister. The differences between dutiful and treacherous servants can be seen in the play, as an “honest Servant” in the character of Tom (Townley 54) exhibits loyal qualities that one might also find in the //Chronicle//’s articles on John Trueman (//London Chronicle// 336.176) or the dutiful servants who risked their lives to bring their mistress to safety from a fire (//London Chronicle// 333.155). By contrast, the characters of Philip and Kitty steal from their master (Townley 25), and exhibit other negative traits (Townley 29-30) (though certainly not as murderous) as do the villainous servants who are mentioned in the //Chronicle// (//London Chronicle// 331.140). As such, the newspaper reports servants in a good and bad light. The letter from Trueman, as hinted at in the final statement on servants being “worse treated than brutes are” (//London Chronicle// 336.176), may have been meant as a means to make the public aware of the plight of servants, not all of whom were dishonest or disloyal, or to soften a negative perception that people may have held regarding servants, whether based on personal experience or from reading accounts from such newspapers as the //Chronicle//. Whether accounts like these influenced James Townley or not in his writing, his play, like the //Chronicle//, also shows examples of dishonorable servants, but also does not forget to present the admirable qualities of a “faithful” and “honest servant” (Townley 54). __ Works Cited __ "Adam Smith." //Encyclopedia of World Biography//. 2nd ed. Vol. 14. Detroit: Gale, 2004. 283-284. //Gale Virtual Reference Library//. Web. 2 July 2015. "Aphra Behn." //Encyclopedia of World Biography//. 2nd ed. Vol. 18. Detroit: Gale, 2004. 33-34. //Gale Virtual Reference Library//. Web. 6 July 2015. Andrews, John F. "William Shakespeare (on or about 23 April 1564-23 April 1616)." //Elizabethan Dramatists//. Ed. Fredson Bowers. Vol. 62. Detroit: Gale, 1987. 267-353. Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 62. //Dictionary of Literary Biography Complete Online//. Web. 6 July 2015. Black, Jeremy. "Seven Years' War." //The Reader's Companion to Military History//. Eds. Robert Cowley and Geoffrey Parker. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996. //Credo Reference.// Web. 6 July 2015. Bode, Robert F. "Arthur Murphy (27 December 1727-18 June 1805)." //Restoration and Eighteenth-Century Dramatists//: //Third Series//. Ed. Paula R. Backscheider. Vol. 89. Detroit: Gale, 1989. 265-280. Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 89. //Dictionary of Literary Biography Complete Online//. Web. 6 July 2015. Charters, Erica. //Disease, War, and the Imperial State: The Welfare of the British Armed Forces During the Seven Years’ War//. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014. //Google Book Search//. Web. 4 July 2015. "Congreve, William." //Gale Contextual Encyclopedia of World Literature//. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 2009. 418-422. //Gale Virtual Reference Library//. Web. 6 July 2015. The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Seven Years’ War.” //Encyclopædia Britannica//. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 11 Nov. 2014. Web. 6 July 2015. "Gay, John." //Gale Contextual Encyclopedia of World Literature//. Vol. 2. Detroit: Gale, 2009. 671-674. //Gale Virtual Reference Library//. Web. 6 July 2015. "Giovanni Battista Pergolesi." //Encyclopedia of World Biography//. 2nd ed. Vol. 12. Detroit: Gale, 2004. 218-219. //Gale Virtual Reference Library//. Web. 6 July 2015. "Goldsmith, Oliver." //Gale Contextual Encyclopedia of World Literature//. Vol. 2. Detroit: Gale, 2009. 714-718. //Gale Virtual Reference Library//. Web. 3 July 2015. Hall, Joy H. "Jean-Jacques Rousseau (28 June 1712-2 July 1778)." //Writers of the French Enlightenment II//. Ed. Samia I. Spencer. Vol. 314. Detroit: Gale, 2005. 116-136. Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 314. //Dictionary of Literary Biography Main Series//. Web. 2 July 2015. Hicks, Anthony. "Handel, George Frideric." // Grove Music Online //. // Oxford //// Music Online //. Oxford University Press. Web. 2 Jul. 2015. “London Chronicle.” //17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers//. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), January 30, 1759 - February 1, 1759; Issue 327. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), February 6, 1759 - February 8, 1759; Issue 330. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), February 8, 1759 - February 10, 1759; Issue 331. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), February 10, 1759 - February 13, 1759; Issue 332. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), February 13, 1759 - February 15, 1759; Issue 333. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), February 15, 1759 - February 17, 1759; Issue 334. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), February 17, 1759 - February 20, 1759; Issue 335. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), February 20, 1759 - February 22, 1759; Issue 336. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), February 22, 1759 - February 24, 1759; Issue 337. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), March 3, 1759 - March 6, 1759; Issue 341. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), March 6, 1759 - March 8, 1759; Issue 342. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), March 8, 1759 - March 10, 1759; Issue 343. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), March 10, 1759 - March 13, 1759; Issue 344. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), March 13, 1759 - March 15, 1759; Issue 345. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), March 15, 1759 - March 17, 1759; Issue 346. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), March 24, 1759 - March 27, 1759; Issue 350. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), March 27, 1759 - March 29, 1759; Issue 351. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), March 31, 1759 - April 3, 1759; Issue 353. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), April 3, 1759 - April 5, 1759; Issue 354. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), April 5, 1759 - April 7, 1759; Issue 355. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), April 12, 1759 - April 14, 1759; Issue 358. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), April 14, 1759 - April 17, 1759; Issue 359. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), April 17, 1759 - April 19, 1759; Issue 360. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), April 21, 1759 - April 24, 1759; Issue 362. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), April 24, 1759 - April 26, 1759; Issue 363. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // London //// Chronicle // (London, England), April 26, 1759 - April 28, 1759; Issue 364. // 17th-18th Century Burney Collection Newspapers //. British Library. Gale. Web. 6 July 2015. // The London Stage, 1660-1800: a Calendar of Plays, Entertainments & Afterpieces, Together with Casts, Box-receipts and Contemporary Comment – Part 4: 1747-1776. // Vol. 4. 1st ed. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1962. //HathiTrust Digital Library//. Web. 6 July 2015. Rosenthal, Laura. “Conscious Lovers 1.” Canvas. University of Maryland. 6 July 2015. MP3 file.

"Rousseau, Jean–Jacques." //Gale Contextual Encyclopedia of World Literature//. Vol. 3. Detroit: Gale, 2009. 1325-1330. //Gale Virtual Reference Library//. Web. 3 July 2015. "Sir Richard Steele." //Encyclopedia of World Biography//. 2nd ed. Vol. 14. Detroit: Gale, 2004. 407-409. //Gale Virtual Reference Library//. Web. 6 July 2015. Townley, James. //High life below stairs. A farce of two acts. As it is performed at the Theatre-Royal in Drury-Lane//. 3rd ed. London: printed for J. Newbery, at the Bible and Sun in St. Paul's Church-Yard ; R. Bailye, at Litchfield; J. Leake and W. Frederick, at Bath; B. Collins, at Salisbury; and S. Stabler at York, MDCCLIX. [1759]. //Eighteenth Century Collections Online//. Web. 3 July 2015. “Townley, James (1714-78).” //The New International Encyclopædia//. Eds. Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck, Frank Moore Colby. Vol. 19. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1905. //Google Book Search//. Web. 6 July 2015. White, Douglas H. "David Garrick (19 February 1717-20 January 1779)." //Restoration and Eighteenth-Century Dramatists//: //Second Series//. Ed. Paula R. Backscheider. Vol. 84. Detroit: Gale, 1989. 146-180. Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 84. //Dictionary of Literary Biography Main Series//. Web. 2 July 2015.

__ Images Cited __ // Guadeloupe //// in 1759. // N.d. John Lambton’s 68th Foot. //lambtons.wordpress.com//. Web. 9 July 2015.

// The London Chronicle from September 11, 1759. // N.d. Niagara Historical Society & Museum. Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada. //www.niagarahistorical.museum//. Web. 9 July 2015.

// Portrait of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). // “[T]hird quarter of 18th century.” Wikimedia Commons. //commons.wikimedia.org//. Web. 9 July 2015.